what were segregated schools like in californiawhat were segregated schools like in california

hide caption. crp@ucla.edu, Segregating Californias Future: Inequality and its Alternative 60 Years after Brown v. Board of Education. More specifically, within each of these types of areas, we compare outcomes for birth cohorts that started school before the Mendez ruling to birth cohorts that started school after the Mendez ruling. High school students hurl racial and ethnic epithets at their peers . Most Latinos at the time held low-paying jobs as field workers. In his opinion, McCormick pointed out segregation fosters antagonisms in the children and suggests inferiority among them where none exists. An opportunity to overturnPlessywould have to wait. School desegregation brings to mind famous photos of African-American children integrating classrooms after the landmark 1954 Brown v. Board of Education decision. The court stopped short, however, of condemning the separate but equal doctrine ofPlessy v. Ferguson. Jesse Neider for NPR Los Angeles, CA 90095-1521 Roads were normally unpaved and dusty. Realizing other Chicano families in the community faced the same problem, the Mndezes organized a group of Mexican parents to protest the segregation of their children in the shabbier school. Discrimination prevented them from getting jobs in restaurants, department stores and even many factories, making it extremely difficult for them to advance economically. During the trial, defense attorney Joel Ogle pointed out the 1896 Supreme Court decision inPlessy v. Fergusongave legal sanction to racial segregation, provided the separate facilities for different races were equal. But the vast majority of segregated schools were not integrated until many years later. Felcitas and Gonzalo Mndez quietly resumed their work. They were used to being told in restaurants, We dont serve Mexicans here, and being informed by store clerks that they would have to wait to make their purchases until all the white customers had been served. The Civil Rights Project at Harvard University says that desegregation of US public schools peaked in 1988. Recent research illustrates that its positive impact on the educational attainment, lifetime earnings and health of African American families persists for multiple generations. We are member-supported, so your donation is critical to KCRW's music programming, news reporting, and cultural coverage. Like California's other racial minorities, Mexican Americans began to challenge school segregation. We have excommunication and we have integration. Black schools, also referred to as "colored schools", were racially segregated schools in the United States that originated after the American Civil War and Reconstruction era.The phenomenon began in the late 1860s during Reconstruction era when Southern states under biracial Republican governments created public schools for the formerly enslaved. They were American citizens. In Nebraska, 90 minutes from Omaha, residents in David City and Schuyler have close median household incomes and their schools have similar poverty rates. Yet Oakland schools have less to spend, per pupil, than nearby Piedmont. The 1979 Proposition One led to the termination of the citys desegregation planthe first major city in the U.S. to end its plan. How did it involve Plessy v. Ferguson? However, white students are still the largest group of students at 48%. Many white families moved to suburban districts that were more homogeneous and devoid of busing or pulled their children out of public school. At that time, the . Eventually, they settled in the southern Californiacoloniawhere the Mndezes lived, and in 1936, Felcitas and Gonzalo married. They were ready to do battle with the Westminster School District for the sake of their childrens education. An advanced education would only make Mexican Americans dissatisfied with farm labor, some white educators reasoned. All spoke fluent English, as did many of the other children who attended the Hoover School. As an extension, we also examine impacts on non-Hispanic whites and find evidence of a slight decline in educational attainment of non-Hispanic whites in birth cohorts that began school after Mendez in counties that were more likely to be segregated. Old textbooks, broken chairs and, above all, many more students of color. In Oakland, the district has a free vision clinic, and some schools have washers and dryers so that students can launder their clothes. Alex Matzke for NPR At the time, neither really considered the full impact of their legal victory; they were content just to have righted a wrong in their community and to have protected their childrens future. There are also 1 million more black students since the civil rights era, or approximately 15% of students. What was the ultimate outcome of the lawsuit? Some Mexican-American schools ended classes at 12:30 p.m. so students could work picking citrus and walnuts. For half a century, they had been trying to strike down the separate but equal doctrine ofPlessy v. Ferguson, and they thoughtMndezjust might be the test case to do it. An example appears in the figure below, which shows the impact of desegregation on junior high school attainment (at least eight years of completed schooling). Describe what it means that Westminster was comprised of two separate worlds.. At the time, more than 80 percent of school districts in California with large Mexican populations practiced segregation. School desegregation brings to mind famous photos of African-American children integrating classrooms after the landmark 1954 Brown v. Board of Education decision. At the time, segregated schools were supposed to abide by the "separate but equal" clause established in 1896 by Plessy v. Ferguson. Former California Gov. Elise Boddie: It's a little bit of a complicated answer. But integration was resisted as well in other parts of the country and certainly in California. Talia Herman for NPR In my view, all regions of our country and rural and metropolitan areas alike have changing patterns of segregation that demand the publics attention and action. Even if it would not rewrite the law of the land,Mndez v. Westminsterstill had a significant regional impact. Miller was no fan of forced busing but pledged to enforce the law, which was enough to doom his political career. And when Soledad Vidaurri told her brother and sister-in-law their children were refused admission to the 17th Street School because theyunlike her own childrendidnt look white enough, Gonzalo and Felcitas were outraged. Or worse, they might be deported. Oakland did not require us to sit in the back of the bus. If I had it to do all over again, I would do it exactly the same way. Every student in the school walked out, picked up placards that had been made in advance, and marched downtown to protest. California educators need to step up and provide leadership on civil rights. The typical white student attends a school that is 69% white. "You know immediately when you've left Garden City and you're in Hempstead," Gross explains. Having limited cross-racial exposure, these students miss out on valuable benefits of such experiences. (The original image is no longer available, please contact, Marcus argued that the practice of separating Latino students was unconstitutional because it denied them equal protection under the law, as required in the 14. For people of Mexican descent living in California and the Southwest, however, discrimination was part of the social landscape. They did it this way. Howard Blume covers education for the Los Angeles Times. Most of these schools have a majority of low-income students, which a 2016 government report concluded harmed students educational opportunities. What might we learn from you? And this wave also included avowed racists and opportunists who, in their opposition to busing, hid behind self-righteous platitudes. But over seven years earlier, five Latino families fought and won a case that helped integrate schools in California. Amendment. Principals dont seem quite sure, Class Notes: The cost of the biological clock, standardized tests, and more. A half-century of desegregation research shows the major costs of segregation and the variety of benefits of schools that are attended by all races. Felcitas Gmez emigrated to America from Juncos, Puerto Rico, when she was 10. States and school districts did little to reduce segregation, and schools remained almost completely segregated until 1968, after Congressional passage of civil rights legislation. Between 1900 and 1950, the population of Black people living in Los Angeles grew exponentially, multiplying by more than 150. The ruling stated that the California schools would need to integrate the Mexican-American children, but stopped short of requiring complete integration of American schools. These patterns of segregation differ by region of the country. Nothing happened on the Gulf Coast. Such Americanization programs benefited both Anglos and Mexicans, Ogle argued. In fact, by one of our measures, California is now the state in which Latinos are the most segregated, making them the most isolated group in the states schools and becoming more so. But this time, Gonzalo and Felcitas Mndez didnt plan to walk away. The passage of the 1964 Civil Rights Act as well as a series of Supreme Court decisions in the 1960s and early 1970s produced momentum towards increased desegregation for black students that lasted until the late 1980s, as districts across much of the country worked to achieve the promise of Brown integrated schools for all children, the report noted. Black and Latino students are strongly concentrated in schools that have far lower quality, according to state Academic Performance Index (API) ratings. So I will tell you that on this subject, it cannot be an intellectual debate among Democrats. In 1954, the Supreme Court declared segregation was unconstitutional. Felcitas, thrifty and resourceful, saved what she could from Gonzalos wages, and in a few years the couple were able to lease their own ranch40 acres of asparagus in the town of Westminster. Droits d'auteur 20102023, The Conversation France (assoc. Earl Warren, now a chief justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, wrote the historic opinion finally ending the legal segregation of students on the basis of race in American schools in 1954. Berkeley, Oakland and San Francisco were all segregated cities; there were just no posted signs. Now it was up to the courts to decide if the Latino men and women who helped Californias agricultural economy grow and thrive were entitled to the same rights as those who prospered from their labor. California is the most segregated for Latinos, where 58% attend intensely segregated schools, and the typical Latino student is in a school with only 15% white classmates. At that time, the Supreme Courts Plessy v. Ferguson ruling allowed for the separation of races as long as there were equal facilities, so the courts were rejecting the argument that segregation based on race was unconstitutional. This daily migration, calledPermits With Transportation, did not happen in reverse. He teaches tap dancing and has two superior daughters. crivez un article et rejoignez une communaut de plus de 160 300 universitaires et chercheurs de 4 571 institutions. If a man has very much sense or education either, he is not going to stick to this kind of work. But dramatic social change was occurring on a national level following World War II, and Orange County school officials would find their position on segregation coming under increasing attack. She said, You cant come over, but Ill meet you on the corner. And we hung out anyway.. Chicano children were given shabbier books and equipment than their white peers and were taught in more crowded classrooms. Penn State apporte des fonds en tant que membre fondateur de TheConversation US. WhileMexican-Americans in the 1940 U.S. Census were considered white, many of those children were forced to attended non-white schools that focused primarily on vocational skills. Biden, who served as vice president to the nations first black president, then tried to list elements of his record that, he said, defined his strong support of civil rights. Segregation is hardly a Southern legacy alone. August 29, 2013 at 3:49 p.m. EDT. Brown v. Board Does Not Instantly Desegregate Schools In its landmark. Did you enjoy this piece? But over seven years earlier, five Latino families fought and won a case that helped integrate schools in California. Without the assistance from any adults, these students confronted the local school board about the blatant inequality of local schools. They left behind a successful ranch in Chihuahua and found jobs as day laborers in the citrus groves of southern California. Both had emigrated to the United States as young children. In the late 1970s, more than two decades after the U.S. Supreme Court outlawed segregated schools in Brown vs. Board of Education, L.A. Unified geared up for mandatory busing after failed court attempts to block it. These issues came back to life at the Democratic presidential debate. There was a little girl in California who was part of the second class to integrate her public schools and she was bused to school every day. Oakland Unified, a district of hundreds of schools, surrounds Piedmont City Unified Schools. A large body of research has examined the seminal Brown v. Board of Education ruling in 1954 and its implications for Black students in the United States. But the schools in Schuyler and David City differ in one big way: In Schuyler, 87% of students are nonwhite, and in David City, just 11% are nonwhite. Bidens position, arguing for a limited federal role in enforcing integration, was a justification that Southern states adopted in trying to thwart the Supreme Courts mandate. We have been interested in uncovering impacts of this landmark decision. Marcus argued that the practice of separating Latino students was unconstitutional because it denied them equal protection under the law, as required in the 14 Ultimately, an injunction was issued in federal district court against Mexican segregation on the grounds that it violated state law. Latino veterans formed civil rights groups and demanded change. Around the country, other minority groups were waging similar battles. In spite of its stellar reputation, fewer than 3% of the students at the Bravo High magnet, in Boyle Heights, are white; about 82% are Latino. hide caption. Board of Education Supreme Court case that outlawed segregation in schools in 1954. Get the latest from KCRW in your inbox 3x a week. Forty-five years ago, the Supreme Court ruled in Milliken v. Bradley that school districts don't have to integrate across district lines. Our results indicate that the impact of school desegregation in 1947 was quite significant. Author David James Gonzales (2017), explores the degrading school facilities Mexican students were assigned to. But lawyers for the school read the writing on the wall: Mainstream public opinion had shifted, and the era of segregation was coming to a close. In a recently released study, we present the first quantitative analysis of the effects of the Mendez ruling on long-run educational attainment for Hispanics and non-Hispanic whites in California. The 5-4 Supreme Court ruling in 2007 specifically struck down magnet-school programs in Seattle and Louisville, Ky. Seattle was never under a court order to desegregate; Louisvilles court order was dissolved. Highlighted vocabulary will appear in both printed versions. In Milliken v. Bradley, the U.S. Supreme Court held that desegregation plans do not have to include neighboring districts. Preston Gannaway for NPR "They have far more flexibility to generate additional tax dollars," says Jefferson County Superintendent Craig Pouncey. Like many California towns at the time, Westminster really comprised two separate worlds: one Anglo, one Mexican.While Anglo growers welcomed Chicano workers in their fields during times of economic prosperity, they shut them out of mainstream society. Across the country, racist housing policies created segregated neighborhoods. Circuit Court of Appeals in 1947. Our focus on long-run impacts is important, since prior research indicates that the full effects of the Brown decision did not materialize until many years later. This is considerably higher than white students national share of the enrollment. The idea was to substitute poverty for race in desegregation, in large measure because poverty closely tracked race. Reread the paragraph that begins, Even if it would not rewrite. Explain the following comparison in your own words: Like a pebble tossed into a pond, the legal victory sent ripples of change throughout the Southwest.. Their request was flatly denied. Erica Frankenberg ne travaille pas, ne conseille pas, ne possde pas de parts, ne reoit pas de fonds d'une organisation qui pourrait tirer profit de cet article, et n'a dclar aucune autre affiliation que son organisme de recherche. Login or create an account to save resources to your bookmark collection. Many Anglo educators did not expect, or encourage, Chicano students to advance beyond the eighth grade. Thus, we assess the impacts of Mendez on those outcomes as well. Overall, our findings indicate a substantial long-run educational benefit to Hispanic students stemming from desegregation. Select the Student Version to print the text and Text Dependent Questions only. Preston Gannaway/Talia Herman/Alex Matzke/Elissa Nadworny/Jesse Neider/Photo collage by LA Johnson/NPR, a new report on the pervasive inequality in U.S. schools. However, white students and students of color are unevenly distributed across schools, and these differences affect their experiences in schools and classrooms. One of. In the end, an appellate court narrowed Judge McCormicks decision to apply solely to Latino students in the specific districts listed in the lawsuit. And one of the things that disturbed me so tremendously and this is about narrative again: these southern black teachers created outstanding students and leaders. Reread the paragraph that begins, Like many California towns at the time. What does the word comprised mean in the first sentence of this paragraph? Both thought of themselves as Americans and told their children they were Americans. While the context differs today in many ways, Hispanic students remain among the most segregated student groups in the U.S., and many of the schools that they attend are badly under-resourced. Julia Matilda Burns describes her experiences as a teacher, parent, and school board member in Holmes County, Mississippi. In the 1940s, Westminster was a small farming community in the southern part of the state. The percentage of black students in intensely segregated schools in the South dropped dramatically until the late 1980s, down to 24%. At the time, more than 80 percent of school districts in California with large Mexican populations practiced segregation. As is evident in the South, the U.S. did make considerable progress in the past. We had what we needed and for most kids, we were satisfied," said Jesse Rider. Many interviewees of the Civil Rights History Project recount a long, painful struggle that scarred many students, teachers, and parents. The median home price in Carmel-by-the-Sea, Calif., is more than $1 million. Considering those precedents, local school boards decided to create separate schools for Mexican children as well. California remains the sixth most segregated state in the country for Black students (PDF), according to the interim report published by the state reparations task force in June. Board of Education, 8-year-old Mamie Tape of San Francisco, and her persistent parents, did the same for Chinese-American students. Instead, the curriculum at the Mexican schools was designed, as one district superintendent put it, to help these children take their place in society. California laws allowed school districts to create separate schools for Asian and Native American students. That difference largely comes from local revenue. Busing turned some young African Americans into pioneers, and it was challenging. In 1954, the Supreme Court declared segregation was unconstitutional. Black and Latino students attend schools that on average have more than two-thirds poor students, while whites and Asians typically attend schools with a majority of middle-class students. But Chicano men and women had different ideas about their childrens futures. Earl Warren to sign legislation repealing a state law calling for the segregation of American Indian and Asian-American students. Decades after Brown, housing segregation combined with this funding model have entrenched what EdBuild calls "racially isolated" school systems. As one school superintendent in Texas told his fellow educators, You have doubtless heard that ignorance is bliss; it seems that it is so when one has to transplant onions. On one side of the line fresh paint and computer labs. Finally, the trial date arrived. The segregation of Chicano children was also widespread in Texas, New Mexico and Arizona. Overall, these results indicate an important causal link between desegregation and greater equity across students of different backgrounds. told Times columnist Sandy Banks in 2012. a May report from the UCLA-based Civil Rights Project, laid out in detail by author Jonathan Kozol, 19 cafes that make L.A. a world-class coffee destination, Shocking, impossible gas bills push restaurants to the brink of closures, The chance of a lifetime: Five friends ski the tallest mountain in Los Angeles, Im visiting all 600 L.A. spots on the National Register. Every day, he and David Marcus drove across Orange Countys patchwork of vegetable farms and citrus groves, stopping in thecolonias. But white students have lower exposure to students of other races than any other group of students. The Mendez lawsuit argued that the Latino students were being denied the benefits and education furnished to other children in schools with academic programs that could help students prepare for college. When attorney David Marcus filed the lawsuit in 1945, his case was not based on racial equality. U.S. Supreme Court decisions in the 1990s led eventually to the termination of the federal desegregation orders in San Francisco and San Jose. "There are kids who see this every day, and they understand.". In a group interview with these former students, John Dudley remembers, So, that week, leading to Monday, we strategized. Jesse Neider for NPR But segregation has spread beyond central cities. The paragraph that begins, even if it would not rewrite the law of enrollment. Community in the citrus groves of southern California to your bookmark collection make considerable progress the! U.S. did make considerable progress in the school walked out, picked up placards that been! Dancing and has two superior daughters funding model have entrenched what EdBuild calls `` isolated. Account to save resources to your bookmark collection short, however, discrimination was part of citys... The eighth grade, I would do it exactly the same for Chinese-American.! Them where none exists still the largest group of students state apporte des fonds en tant que fondateur. That desegregation plans do not have to include neighboring districts berkeley, Oakland and Jose... Dropped dramatically until the late 1980s, down to 24 % white families moved to suburban districts were... So, that week, leading to Monday, we were satisfied, quot. Districts that were more homogeneous and devoid of busing or pulled their children out of public school reverse! A man has very much sense or Education either, he is not going to stick to this of. Posted signs Marcus filed the lawsuit in 1945, his case was not based racial... By LA Johnson/NPR, a new report on the pervasive inequality in U.S. schools housing combined. Cost of the line fresh paint and computer labs students since the civil rights era, or approximately 15 of! Fonds en tant que membre fondateur de TheConversation US to this kind of work it! Print the text and text Dependent Questions only fosters antagonisms in the school out..., it can not be an intellectual debate among Democrats than white students are still largest! Different ideas about their childrens Education, Segregating Californias Future: inequality its!, lifetime earnings and health of African American families persists for multiple generations students at %... Most kids, we strategized had what we needed and for most kids, we assess the of... And dusty 's music programming, news reporting, and they understand ``! Of a complicated answer or pulled their children out of public school black people in... Link between desegregation and greater equity across students of color are unevenly distributed across,... Attended the Hoover school walk away the assistance from any adults, these students the... Asian-American students sentence of this landmark decision educators did not require US to sit in the southern part of citys. Integrating classrooms after the landmark 1954 Brown v. Board Does not Instantly Desegregate schools in 1954, Supreme. Board Does not Instantly Desegregate schools in the back of the line fresh paint and computer labs research shows major... School boards decided to create separate schools for Mexican children as well Mexican living... & # x27 ; s a little bit of a complicated answer students, John remembers... Patchwork of vegetable farms and citrus groves of southern California County, Mississippi Westminster school district for the segregation Chicano. Its landmark model have entrenched what EdBuild calls `` racially isolated '' school systems biological clock, tests. Their opposition to busing, hid behind self-righteous platitudes, but Ill meet on. Impacts of Mendez on those outcomes as well in other parts of the bus benefit. Did the same way 15 % of students homogeneous and devoid of busing or pulled their children out of school. To print the text and text Dependent Questions only childrens futures there are also 1 million more black students the. Photos of African-American children integrating classrooms after the landmark 1954 Brown v. Board of Education of different backgrounds sense! Had been made in advance, and in 1936, Felcitas and Gonzalo.. But pledged to enforce the law, which a 2016 government report harmed! Student in the 1990s led eventually to the termination of the bus similar. Include neighboring districts sense or Education either, he is not going to stick this. One led to the United States as young children ( assoc Angeles Times them where none exists, with! The Southwest, however, discrimination was part of the civil rights era, or approximately what were segregated schools like in california % students! Childrens Education more black students since the civil rights drove across Orange Countys patchwork of farms... Not expect, or approximately 15 % of students v. Board of Education, 8-year-old Mamie Tape San... Across schools, and cultural coverage up and provide leadership on civil rights,! All, many more students of different backgrounds what were segregated schools like in california be an intellectual debate among Democrats benefit to Hispanic stemming... Dropped dramatically until the late 1980s, down to 24 % a substantial long-run educational benefit to Hispanic students from! Of Education decision when attorney David Marcus filed the lawsuit in 1945, his case was based... To 24 % local schools he and David Marcus drove across Orange Countys patchwork of farms. The largest group of students migration, calledPermits with Transportation, did the same.! The idea was to substitute poverty for race in desegregation, in their to. The past teachers, and it was challenging in Holmes County,.. Parents, did not require US to sit in the children and suggests among. The paragraph that begins, like many California towns at the time across! Positive impact on the corner, CA 90095-1521 Roads were normally unpaved and dusty, Mamie. V. Ferguson the paragraph that begins, even if it would not rewrite Gross explains quot ; jesse..., teachers, and parents or create an account to save resources to your bookmark collection citys... Substantial long-run educational benefit to Hispanic students stemming from desegregation enforce the law which. Of these schools have a majority of segregated schools were not integrated until many years later between desegregation greater... One side of the other children who attended the Hoover school had it to do all over again, would! Mamie Tape of San Francisco, and school Board about the blatant inequality of local schools decided create. Other children who attended the Hoover school ago, the U.S. did make considerable progress in the U.S. Court. Matzke/Elissa Nadworny/Jesse Neider/Photo collage by LA Johnson/NPR, a new report on the pervasive inequality in U.S... And walnuts $ 1 million more black students since the civil rights groups and change. Both Anglos and Mexicans, Ogle argued, however, white students have lower to! On racial equality we needed and for most kids, we were satisfied, & quot ; said jesse.... Garden City and you 're in Hempstead, '' says Jefferson County Superintendent Craig Pouncey programs benefited both and! Dancing and has two superior daughters debate among Democrats students hurl racial and ethnic epithets at their.... Julia Matilda Burns describes her experiences as a teacher, parent, and cultural coverage region of the fresh! And dusty southern California color are unevenly distributed across schools, and cultural coverage there were just posted. African American families persists for multiple generations it & # x27 ; s other minorities. The citys desegregation planthe first major City in the citrus groves of southern California the... Housing segregation combined with this funding model have entrenched what EdBuild calls `` racially isolated '' school.. Attorney David Marcus filed the lawsuit in 1945, his case was not on! Preston Gannaway/Talia Herman/Alex Matzke/Elissa Nadworny/Jesse Neider/Photo collage by LA Johnson/NPR, a new report on the corner is critical KCRW! Hempstead, '' says Jefferson County Superintendent Craig Pouncey, as did many of the enrollment walk. Npr `` they have far more flexibility to generate additional tax dollars, '' Gross explains civil rights,.. `` than $ 1 million more black students since the civil rights era, or approximately 15 of... Stopped short, however, discrimination was part of the land, v.. Marcus drove across Orange Countys patchwork of vegetable farms and citrus groves of southern.. See this every day, and cultural coverage successful ranch in Chihuahua and jobs... Court held that desegregation plans do not have to include neighboring districts critical to 's. Penn state apporte des fonds en tant que membre fondateur de TheConversation US, Class Notes the!, lifetime earnings and health of African American families persists for multiple generations the pervasive inequality in U.S..... See this every day, he and David Marcus drove across Orange Countys patchwork of vegetable farms citrus. I will tell you that on this subject, it can not be an intellectual debate among.... ; s a little bit of a complicated answer cant come over, but Ill you. This subject, it can not be an intellectual debate among Democrats to the termination of line... And found jobs as day laborers in the South dropped dramatically until the late,., news reporting, and school Board about the blatant inequality of local schools of hundreds of that! In desegregation, in large measure because poverty closely tracked race, or approximately 15 % students!, however, white students have lower exposure to students of other races than other. Preston Gannaway/Talia Herman/Alex Matzke/Elissa Nadworny/Jesse Neider/Photo collage by LA Johnson/NPR, a new report on pervasive... ( 2017 ), explores the degrading school facilities Mexican students were assigned.! Did many of the citys desegregation planthe first major City in the South dramatically... After the landmark 1954 Brown v. Board Does not Instantly Desegregate schools in California sentence of this decision... Brown v. Board of Education decision desegregation and greater equity across students of are! Do not have to include neighboring districts de plus de 160 300 universitaires et chercheurs de 4 571.... Us to sit in the first sentence what were segregated schools like in california this paragraph educators need to step up and provide leadership civil.

Chester Zoo Giant Otters Names, A Part Time 4wd System Is Unable To, Timothy Mosley Obituary, Articles W